Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is a type of Internet-based computing that provides shared computer processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand. It is a model for enabling ubiquitous, on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., computer networks, servers, storage, applications and services), which can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort. Cloud computing and storage solutions provide users and enterprises with various capabilities to store and process their data in third-party data centers that may be located far from the user–ranging in distance from across a city to across the world. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economy of scale, similar to a utility (like the electricity grid) over an electricity network.

Source:

http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2372163,00.asp

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing

BioChip

A computer chip made from organic molecules rather than semiconductors. ... biochip.

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Source:
http://www.mybloggerbuzz.com/2014/02/how-to-disable-copy-paste-in-blogger.html

Integrated Circuit (IC)

An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip, is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated. An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory, or microprocessor. A particular IC is categorized as either linear (analog) or digital, depending on its intended application.

Linear ICs have continuously variable output (theoretically capable of attaining an infinite number of states) that depends on the input signal level. As the term implies, the output signal level is a linear function of the input signal level. Ideally, when the instantaneous output is graphed against the instantaneous input, the plot appears as a straight line. Linear ICs are used as audio-frequency (AF) and radio-frequency (RF) amplifiers. The operational amplifier(op amp) is a common device in these applications.

Digital ICs operate at only a few defined levels or states, rather than over a continuous range of signal amplitudes. These devices are used in computers, computer networks, modems, and frequency counters. The fundamental building blocks of digital ICs are logic gates, which work with binary data, that is, signals that have only two different states, called low (logic 0) and high (logic 1).

Our world is full of integrated circuits. You find several of them in computers. For example, most people have probably heard about the microprocessor. The microprocessor is an integrated circuit that processes all information in the computer. It keeps track of what keys are pressed and if the mouse has been moved. It counts numbers and runs programs, games and the operating system. Integrated circuits are also found in almost every modern electrical device such as cars, television sets, CD players, cellular phones, etc. But what is an integrated circuit and what is the history behind it?

Source:
http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/history/
http://www.daenotes.com/electronics/devices-circuits/integrated-circuits-ic

Transistor

A transistor computer is a computer which uses discrete transistors instead of vacuum tubes. The "first generation" of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of heat, were bulky, and were unreliable. A "second generation" of computers, through the late 1950s and 1960s featured boards filled with individual transistors and magnetic memory cores (see History of computing hardware). These machines remained the mainstream design into the late 1960s, when integrated circuits started appearing and led to the "third generation" machines.

source: pbs.org

Vacuum Tube

Alternatively referred to as an electron tube or valve and first developed by John Ambrose Fleming in 1904. The vacuum tube is a glass tube that has its gas removed which creates a vacuum. Vacuum tubes contain electrodes for controlling electron flow in early computers that used them as a switch or an amplifier. The picture shows a collection of different vacuum tubes to give you a better understanding.

source: vacuumtube.net

Today, vacuum tubes are no longer used with computers and have been replaced by the transistor.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the academic field of study which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behavior.

History

"machines will be capable, within 20 years, of doing any work a man can do." Two years later, MIT researcher Marvin Minsky predicted, "Within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved."

(artificial intelligence innovator Herbert Simon.1965)

Definition

•     Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it

•     Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it

Comparisons between human and computer intelligence

Normal humans have the same intellectual mechanisms and that differences in intelligence are related to ``quantitative biochemical and physiological conditions' , but computer programs have plenty of speed and memory but their abilities correspond to the intellectual mechanisms that program designers understand well enough to put in programs.

Whenever people do better than computers on some task or computers use a lot of computation to do as well as people, this demonstrates that the program designers lack understanding of the intellectual mechanisms required to do the task efficiently.

Motivation

Why Artificial Intelligence?

•  Computers are fundamentally well suited to performing mechanical computations, using fixed programmed rules.

•    Artificial machines perform simple monotonous tasks efficiently and reliably, which humans are ill-suited to.

•   For more complex problems, things get more difficult... Unlike humans, computers have trouble understanding specific situations, and adapting to new situations.

•         Artificial Intelligence aims to improve machine behavior in tackling such complex tasks.

•   Humans have an interesting approach to problem-solving, based on abstract thought, high-level deliberative reasoning and pattern recognition.

•        AI research is allowing us to understand our intelligent behavior.

•       Artificial Intelligence can help us understand this process by recreating it, then potentially enabling us to enhance it beyond our current capabilities.

Limitations

        When will Computers become truly intelligent?

•      To date, all the traits of human intelligence have not been captured and applied together to spawn an intelligent artificial creature. 

•        Currently, Artificial Intelligence rather seems to focus on lucrative domain specific applications, which do not necessarily require the full extent of AI capabilities.

•     There is little doubt among the community that artificial machines will be capable of intelligent thought in the near future.

Technology

•     How does Artificial Intelligence work?

•   There are many different approaches to Artificial Intelligence. Some are obviously more suited than others in some cases.

•   Over the past five decades, AI research has mostly been focusing on solving specific problems. Numerous solutions have been devised and improved to do so efficiently and reliably.

•   This explains why the field of Artificial Intelligence is split into many branches, ranging from Pattern Recognition to Artificial Life, including Evolutionary Computation and Planning.

Advantage

•         it can help improve our way of life

•         machines will be able to do jobs that require detailed instructions

•         mental alertness and decision making capabilities

•         use robots for heavy construction, military benefits, or even for personal assistance at private homes

•         there will be less injuries and stress to human beings

•     Many of our health problems now have possible solutions with the use of Artificial Intelligence in studies at universities

•          scientists have been using AI to test theories and notions about how our brains work

•          AI opens up new and exciting avenues for entertainment possibilities.

•      AI also makes interactive electronic games more fun by making the computer controlled characters more realistic and human-like.

Applications

•          game playing

There is some AI in them and they play well against people

•          speech recognition

instruct some computers using speech

•          understanding natural language

The computer has to be provided with a understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only for very limited domains.

•          expert systems

One of the first expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which diagnosed bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments. It did better than medical students or practicing doctors, provided its limitations were observed.The usefulness of current expert systems depends on their users having common sense

•          Modeling Human Performance

•          Planning & Robotics

•          Languages & Environments for AI

•          Machine Learning

•          AI & Philosophy

Programming languages used to develop AI

Ø  Lisp

Ø  Python

Ø  Prolog

Ø  Java

Ø  C++

Artificial intelligence and Learning

Using Artificial intelligence (AI) help instructional designers to provide creative solutions ,  problem solving strategies and more interactivity in the learning  .

For example , Games :

The games provide interactive learning environment for learners .The intelligence is necessary in computer games when players are competing against other characters which are played by the computer. Most people enjoy playing against other people rather than a machine because other people can provide variable, random and sometimes unpredictable responses and behaviors, whereas simply programmed machines will always respond the same way, in predictable ways that mean a player only has to remember the few basic responses possible, and respond to them in order to complete the level.